Mongolia and several other Asian countries consistently exceed WHO air quality guidelines, contributing to elevated rates of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, premature mortality, and substantial economic losses (WHO, 2018; World Bank, 2025; Guttikunda et al., 2023). Although CAMCA countries have introduced air quality legislation and mitigation strategies, weaknesses persist in enforcement mechanisms (UNDP, 2022; ADB, 2024; OECD, 2023).
Winter air pollution remains a persistent public health and environmental challenge in urban centers across Central Asia, Mongolia, and the Caucasus (CAMCA), largely driven by household coal combustion, biomass use, and meteorological conditions that exacerbate particulate matter concentrations (PM₂.₅, PM₁₀) during the cold season.
Regional assessments point to persistent legal, institutional, and monitoring shortcomings limiting effective air quality management (World Bank, 2023). Effective governance requires integrated legal frameworks, strong enforcement, affordable clean technologies, continuous monitoring, and active public participation (Bressers & Kuks, 2004; UNEP, 2023). Strengthening Mongolia’s institutional capacity and reforming legal frameworks to support transparent, evidence-based policymaking independent of political cycles is vital (ADB, 2024).
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